Methods
Methods
There is no shortage of advice on how to study better, but far from all of it is based on research. In this section we have gathered techniques with solid evidence behind them: what the review by Dunlosky and colleagues found, what Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve is, and where the Pomodoro technique and Cornell notes come from. We also take apart popular myths that get in the way of learning.
The most familiar techniques, rereading and highlighting, turned out not to be the most useful. That is good news: there is room to improve without adding extra hours.
How this section works: we rely on a limited set of well-established sources and summarise their conclusions in general terms. We do not quote figures that are not in those sources and do not claim more than they say.
Study techniques and what is known about them
| Technique | What it involves | What research says |
|---|---|---|
| Practice testing | Recalling material without prompts: answering questions, solving problems, working with flashcards | Rated among the most useful techniques in the review by Dunlosky and colleagues (2013); trying to recall strengthens memory more than rereading |
| Distributed practice | Returning to material several times with gaps instead of one long session | Named in the same review as one of the two most useful techniques |
| Interleaving | Mixing different types of problems and topics in one session | Examined in the review but not among the most useful; there is less evidence for it than for the two leaders |
| Rereading | Reading the same text several times in a row | Rated low utility in the review: it creates a sense of familiarity but does little to help recall |
| Highlighting | Underlining or colour-marking important parts of a text | Also rated low utility; highlighting on its own does not replace working with the material |
The forgetting curve
In 1885 the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus published his study of memory, Über das Gedächtnis ("On Memory"). He memorised sets of nonsense syllables and tested how many he still remembered after various intervals. This is how he described the forgetting curve: a noticeable share of what has been learned is lost soon after learning, and then forgetting slows down.
In the same work Ebbinghaus described the spacing effect: material reviewed several times with gaps stays in memory better than material reviewed the same number of times in a row. This finding underlies the spaced repetition still used today.
Pomodoro and Cornell
The Pomodoro technique was devised by Francesco Cirillo in the late 1980s. You work in 25-minute blocks with short breaks in between, and take a longer break after several blocks. The name comes from a tomato-shaped kitchen timer. The technique helps you get started and remember to rest.
The Cornell note-taking method was described by Walter Pauk of Cornell University in the 1950s. The page is divided into a column for key questions, a main area for notes and a strip for a summary. The question column is handy for self-testing: cover your notes and try to answer the questions.
Related sections
- Lessons
Short lessons on memory, spaced repetition, retrieval practice, interleaving, reading difficult texts and note-taking.
- Practice
Hands-on tasks: a two-week review plan, flashcards for self-testing and the warning signs of passive rereading.
- Terms
Short, plain-language definitions of terms about memory, study methods and organising your learning.
Sources
- H. Ebbinghaus, Über das Gedächtnis (1885)
- Dunlosky et al., Improving Students' Learning With Effective Learning Techniques (2013)
- Roediger & Karpicke (2006) — research on the testing effect
- W. Pauk, How to Study in College
- F. Cirillo — The Pomodoro Technique
Study techniques are described in general terms based on classic work on memory and the research reviews listed in the sources. Choose techniques that fit your task and check what actually works for you.